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Confucius (Kǒngzǐ)

551–479 BC, the state of Lu

Master Kong of Lu. Self-taught in the Six Arts. Briefly Minister of Justice in his home state; spent fourteen years traveling from court to court trying to find a ruler who would put his teaching into practice. Returned home and taught — three thousand students, seventy-two masters. Edited the Book of Odes. Died believing his work had failed. The Analects are his disciples' record of what he said.

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Confucian

Mencius

~372–289 BCE, the Warring States period, China

Mengzi, the Second Sage of Confucianism. He argued that human nature is fundamentally good — the four sprouts of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are in everyone and must be cultivated. He debated kings about righteous governance and said a ruler who fails his people may be replaced. He is the great humanist of the Confucian tradition.

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Confucian

Xunzi

~310–235 BCE, the late Warring States period, China

Xun Kuang, the great Confucian counterpoint to Mencius. He argued that human nature is neither good nor evil — virtue must be formed through ritual, study, and sustained discipline. His students included Han Feizi and Li Si, who founded Legalism, which horrified him. His essay "Encouraging Learning" opens the collection: learning never stops.

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